- Dreams- A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.
- Manifest Content- The remembered storyline of a dream.
- Latent Content- The underlying meaning of a dream.
- Why do we dream?
- Freud's wish- fulfillment Theory
- Dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts.
- Ideas and thoughts are hidden in our unconscious.
- Manifest and Latent Content.
- Information processing Theory
- Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day.
- REM sleep does increase after stressful events.
- Activation- Synthesis Theory
- During the night our brain stem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity.
- Insomnia
- Persistent problems falling asleep.
- Affects 10% of the population.
- Narcolepsy
- Suffer from sleeplessness and may fall asleep or unpredictable or inappropriate times.
- Directly into REM sleep,
- Less than .001% of population.
- Sleep Apnea
- A person stops breathing during their sleep.
- Wake up momentarily. gasps for air then falls back asleep.
- Very common especially in heavy mates.
- Can be fatal.
- Night Terrors
- A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified.
- Occur in Stage 4, not REM, and are not often remembered.
- Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)
- An estimated ten percent of all humans at least 1 in their lives.
- Sleep walking most often occurs during deep Non- REM sleep stage 3 or Stage 4 early in the night.
- Stages of consciousness
- Sleep
- State of consciousness
- We are less aware of our surroundings.
- Conscious
- Subconscious
- Unconscious
- Why we daydream
- Help us prepare future events.
- Nourish our social development.
- Substitute for impulsive behavior.
- Fantasy Prone Personalities
- Someone who imagines and recalls experiences with lifelike vividness and who spends considerable time fantasizing.
- Biological Rhythms
- Annual cycles- Seasonal variations (Bears hibernate, seasonal affective disorder.)
- 28 Days cycle- Menstrual Cycle
- 24 Hour cycle- Our circadian rhythm
- 90 minute cycle- sleep cycle.
- Circadian Rhythm
- Our 24 hour biological clock.
- Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day.
- It is best to take a test or study during your circadian peaks.
- Sleep Stages
- There are 5 identifies stages of sleep.
- It takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the 5 stages.
- The brain's waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in.
- The first four stages are known as NREM sleep.
- The fifth stage is called REM sleep.
- Stage 1 of Sleep
- Kind of awake and kind of asleep.
- Only lasts a few minutes and you usually only experience it once a night.
- Eyes begin to roll slightly.
- Your brain produces theta waves (high amplitude low frequency/slow.)
- Stage 2
- This follows stage 1. Sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep.
- The stage is put of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45- 60% of sleep more theta waves that get progressively slower.
- Stage 3 and 4
- Slow wave sleep
- You produce delta waves.
- If awaken you will be very groggy
- Vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health.
- May last 15-30 minutes.
- It is called "slow wave" sleep because brain activity slows down dramatically slower rhythm called "delta" and the height or amplitude of the waves increases dramatically.
- Contrary to popular relief, it is delta sleep that is the "deepest" stage of sleep (Not REM) and the most restorative.
- H is delta sleep that a sleep deprived person's brain craves the first and foremost.
- In children, delta sleep can occupy up to most 40% of all sleep time and this is what makes children unwakeable or "dead asleep" during most of the night.
- REM Sleep
- Rapid Eye Movement
- Often called paradoxical sleep.
- Brain is very active
- Dreams usually occur in REM.
- Body is essentially paralyzed.
- Composes 20-25% of a normal nights sleep.
- Breathing, heart rate, and brain wave activity quicken.
- Vivid dreams can occur.
- From REM, you go back to stage 2.
- Token Economy- Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given.
- They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)
- Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools.
- Ratio Schedules
- Fixed Ratio- Provides a reinforcement after a set number of responses.
- Variable Ratio- Provides a reinforcement of random number of responses.
- Interval Schedules
- Fixed Interval- Requires a set amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
- Variable Interval- Requires a random amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
- Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction.
- Observational Learning
- Albert Bandura and his Bobo doll.
- We learn through modeling behavior from others.

- Observational Learning + Operant Conditioning= Social Learning Theory
- Latent Learning
- Edward Toleman
- Three rat experiment
- Latent means hidden
- Sometimes learning is not immediately evident.
- Insight Learning
- Wolfgang Kohler and his chimpanzees.
- Some animals learn through the "ah ha" experience.
- A reinforcement is used to increase a desired behavior.
- A punishment is used to decrease an unwanted behavior.
- Operant Conditioning
- The learner is not passive
- Learning based on consequence.
- A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.
- Classical v. Operant
- They both use acquisition, discrimination, SR, generalization and extinction.
- Classical conditioning is automatic (respondent behavior). Dogs automatically salivate over meat, then bell- no thinking involved.
- Operant conditioning involves behavior where one can influence their environment with behaviors which have consequences. (Operant behavior.)

- Law of Effect by Edward Thorndike
- Rewarded behavior is likely to reccur.
- B.F. Skinner
- Shaping- a procedure in operant conditioning in which reinforces guide behavior closer and closer towards a goal.
- Reinforcers
- Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
- Two types of reinforcment.
- Positive Reinforcement
- Strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response.
- Negative Reinforcement
- Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus.
- Types of Reinforcers
- Primary Reinforcers
- an innately reinforcing stimulus.
- Conditiones (Secondary) Reinforcers
- A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association within its primary reinforcement.
- Punishment
- An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
- Reinforcement Schedules
- Continuous Reinforcement
- Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
- Partial Reinforcement
- Reinforcing a response only part of the time
- The acquisition process is slower.
- Greater resistance to extinction.
- Fixed- Ratio Schedules
- A schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
- Ex: I give cookie monster a cookie every five times he sings "C is for Cookie."
- Variable- Ratio Schedules
- A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of response.
- Fxed Interval Schedule
- A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
- Variable Interval Schedule
- A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable intervals.
- Associative Learning
- Learning that certain events occur together.
- Classical Conditioning
- Ivan Pavlov, tested theory on dogs.
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCR) the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS.
- Conditioned Response (CR) The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
- Pavlov spent the rest of his life outlining.
- Stages
- Acquisition- The initial stage of learning.
- The phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR (Thus becoming the CS)
- Extinction- The diminishing of a conditioned response
- Will eventually happen when the UCS does not follow the CS.
- Spontaneous Recovery
- The reappearance. After a rest period, of n extinguished conditioned response.
- Generalization
- The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses.
- Discrimination
- The ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS.
- Explicit ( Declarative) with Conscious Recall
- Facts- general knowledge "semantic memory" personally experienced events "episodic memory"
- Implicit (non declarative) with unconscious recall.
- Skills- motor and cognitive
- Classical and operant conditioning effect.
- Types of Retrieval Failure
- Proactive Interference- The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
- Retroactive Interference- The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
- Misinformation effect- Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
- Memory- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.
- Memory processing
- Encoding- the process of information into the memory system.
- Storage- the retention of encoded material over time.
- Retrieval- process of getting the information out of memory storage.
- Recall v. Recognition
- With recall, you must retrieve the information from your memory (fill in the blank tests)
- With recognition, you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple choice tests)
- Flashbulb memory- A clear moment of emotionally significant moment or event.
- Types of memory
- Sensory memory
- Short- term memory
- Long - term memory
- Sensory memory is the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system.
- Stored just for instant, and must get unprocessed.
- Short term memory is memory that holds a few items briefly
- Seven digits (Plus of minus two)
- The information will be stored into long- term or forgotten.
- Working memory (modern day stm)
- Another way of destroying the use of short term memory is called working memory.
- Working memory has three parts
- Audio
- Visual
- Integration of audio and visual (controls where your attention lies)
- Long- term memory
- The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
- Encoding
- Automatic Processing
- Unconscious encoding of incidental information
- You encode space, time, and word meaning without effort.
- Things can become automatic with practice.
- Effortful Processing
- Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
- Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique.
- Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic.
- Intelligence- The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt new situations.
- Is socially constructed, thus, can be culturally specific.
- Factor analysis- a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test.
- Charles Spearman used FA to discover his general intelligence.
- Multiple intelligences
- Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearman's general intelligence and instead came up with the concept of multiple intelligences.
- He came up with the idea by studying savants. ( a condition where a person has limited mental abilitybut is exceptional in one area.)
- Gardner's multiple intelligences
- Visual/ spatial
- Verbal/ linguistic
- Logical/ mathematical
- Bodily/kinesthetic
- Musical/ rhythmic
- Interpersonal
- Intrapersonal
- Natural
- Sternberg's three aspects of intelligence
- Gardner simplified
- Analytical