05/15/14 Dreams

• Dreams- A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind.

• Manifest Content- The remembered storyline of a dream.
• Latent Content- The underlying meaning of a dream. 
• Why do we dream?
1. Freud's wish- fulfillment Theory
• Dreams are the key to understanding our inner conflicts.
• Ideas and thoughts are hidden in our unconscious.
• Manifest and Latent Content.
2. Information processing Theory
• Dreams act to sort out and understand the memories that you experience that day.
• REM sleep does increase after stressful events.
3. Activation- Synthesis Theory
• During the night our brain stem releases random neural activity, dreams may be a way to make sense of that activity. 

05/14/14 Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia
• Persistent problems falling asleep.
• Affects 10% of the population.

• Narcolepsy
• Suffer from sleeplessness and may fall asleep or unpredictable or inappropriate times. 
• Directly into REM sleep,
• Less than .001% of population.

• Sleep Apnea
• A person stops breathing during their sleep.
• Wake up momentarily. gasps for air then falls back asleep.
• Very common especially in heavy mates.
• Can be fatal.

• Night Terrors
• A sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified.
• Occur in Stage 4, not REM, and are not often remembered.

• Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)
• An estimated ten percent of all humans at least 1 in their lives. 
• Sleep walking most often occurs during deep Non- REM sleep stage 3 or Stage 4 early in the night. 

05/07/14 Sleep

• Stages of consciousness
• Sleep, Hypnosis, Sleep
• Sleep
• State of consciousness
• We are less aware of our surroundings.
• Conscious
• Subconscious
• Unconscious
• Why we daydream
• Help us prepare future events.
• Nourish our social development.
• Substitute for impulsive behavior.
• Fantasy Prone Personalities 
• Someone who imagines and recalls experiences with lifelike vividness and who spends considerable time fantasizing.
• Biological Rhythms
• Annual cycles- Seasonal variations (Bears hibernate, seasonal affective disorder.)
• 28 Days cycle- Menstrual Cycle
• 24 Hour cycle- Our circadian rhythm 
• 90 minute cycle- sleep cycle.
• Circadian Rhythm
• Our 24 hour biological clock.
• Our body temperature and awareness changes throughout the day.
• It is best to take a test or study during your circadian peaks.
• Sleep Stages
• There are 5 identifies stages of sleep.
• It takes about 90-100 minutes to pass through the 5 stages.
• The brain's waves will change according to the sleep stage you are in.
• The first four stages are known as NREM sleep.
• The fifth stage is called REM sleep.

1. Stage 1 of Sleep
• Kind of awake and kind of asleep.
• Only lasts a few minutes and you usually only experience it once a night.
• Eyes begin to roll slightly.
• Your brain produces theta waves (high amplitude low frequency/slow.)
2. Stage 2
• This follows stage 1. Sleep and is the "baseline" of sleep.
• The stage is put of the 90 minute cycle and occupies approximately 45- 60% of sleep more theta waves that get progressively slower. 
3. Stage 3 and 4
• Slow wave sleep
• You produce delta waves.
• If awaken you will be very groggy
• Vital for restoring body's growth hormones and good overall health. 
• May last 15-30 minutes.
• It is called "slow wave" sleep because brain activity slows down dramatically slower rhythm called "delta" and the height or amplitude of the waves increases dramatically.
• Contrary to popular relief, it is delta sleep that is the "deepest" stage of sleep (Not REM) and the most restorative.

• H is delta sleep that a sleep deprived person's brain craves the first and foremost. 
• In children, delta sleep can occupy up to most 40% of all sleep time and this is what makes children unwakeable or "dead asleep" during most of the night. 

• REM Sleep
• Rapid Eye Movement
• Often called paradoxical sleep.
• Brain is very active
• Dreams usually occur in REM.
• Body is essentially paralyzed.
• Composes 20-25% of a normal nights sleep.
• Breathing, heart rate, and brain wave activity quicken.
• Vivid dreams can occur.
• From REM, you go back to stage 2. 

05/06/14 Token Economy

• Token Economy- Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given.
• They can trade tokens in for a variety of prizes (reinforcers)
• Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions, and schools. 
• Ratio Schedules
1. Fixed Ratio- Provides a reinforcement after a set number of responses.
2. Variable Ratio- Provides a reinforcement of random number of responses.
• Interval Schedules
1. Fixed Interval- Requires a set amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
2. Variable Interval- Requires a random amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement.
• Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction. 
• Observational Learning 
• Albert Bandura and his Bobo doll. 
• We learn through modeling behavior from others.

• Observational Learning + Operant Conditioning= Social Learning Theory
• Latent Learning
• Edward Toleman
• Three rat experiment
• Latent means hidden
• Sometimes learning is not immediately evident.
• Insight Learning
• Wolfgang Kohler and his chimpanzees.
• Some animals learn through the "ah ha" experience.
• A reinforcement is used to increase a desired behavior.
• A punishment is used to decrease an unwanted behavior.

05/05/14 Operant Conditioning

• Operant Conditioning 
• The learner is not passive
• Learning based on consequence.
• A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.
• Classical v. Operant
• They both use acquisition, discrimination, SR, generalization and extinction.
• Classical conditioning is automatic (respondent behavior). Dogs automatically salivate over meat, then bell- no thinking involved.
• Operant conditioning involves behavior where one can influence their environment with behaviors which have consequences. (Operant behavior.)

• Law of Effect by Edward Thorndike
• Rewarded behavior is likely to reccur.
• B.F. Skinner
• Shaping- a procedure in operant conditioning in which reinforces guide behavior closer and closer towards a goal.
• Reinforcers
• Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
• Two types of reinforcment.
• Positive
• Negative
• Positive Reinforcement
• Strengthens a response by presenting a stimulus after a response.
• Negative Reinforcement
• Strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus. 
• Types of Reinforcers
1. Primary Reinforcers
• an innately reinforcing stimulus.
2. Conditiones (Secondary) Reinforcers
• A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association within its primary reinforcement. 
• Punishment
• An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.
• Reinforcement Schedules
1. Continuous Reinforcement
• Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. 
2. Partial Reinforcement
• Reinforcing a response only part of the time
• The acquisition process is slower.
• Greater resistance to extinction.
3. Fixed- Ratio Schedules
• A schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
• Ex: I give cookie monster a cookie every five times he sings "C is for Cookie."
4. Variable- Ratio Schedules
• A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of response.
5. Fxed Interval Schedule
• A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. 
6. Variable Interval Schedule
• A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response at unpredictable intervals.

05/01/14 Learning

• Associative Learning
• Learning that certain events occur together.
• Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov, tested theory on dogs.
• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCR) the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS.
• Conditioned Response (CR) The learned response to a previously neutral stimulus. 
• Pavlov spent the rest of his life outlining.
• Stages
1. Acquisition- The initial stage of learning.
• The phase where the neutral stimulus is associated with the UCS so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit the CR (Thus becoming the CS)
2. Extinction- The diminishing of a conditioned response
• Will eventually happen when the UCS does not follow the CS.
3. Spontaneous Recovery
• The reappearance. After a rest period, of n extinguished conditioned response.
4. Generalization
• The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses. 
5. Discrimination
• The ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS.

04/28/14 Types of Long Term Memory

1. Explicit ( Declarative) with Conscious Recall
• Facts- general knowledge "semantic memory" personally experienced events "episodic memory"
2. Implicit (non declarative) with unconscious recall.
• Skills- motor and cognitive
• Classical and operant conditioning effect.

• Types of Retrieval Failure
• Proactive Interference- The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
• Retroactive Interference- The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
• Misinformation effect- Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

04/24/14 Memory

• Memory- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. 
• Memory processing
1.  Encoding- the process of information into the memory system. 
2.  Storage- the retention of encoded material over time. 
3.  Retrieval- process of getting the information  out of memory storage. 
• Recall v. Recognition 
• With recall,  you must retrieve the information from your memory (fill in the blank tests)
• With recognition, you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple choice tests) 
• Flashbulb memory- A clear moment of emotionally significant moment or event. 
• Types of memory
1.  Sensory memory 
2.  Short- term memory 
3.  Long - term memory 
• Sensory memory is the immediate,  initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. 
• Stored just for instant,  and must get unprocessed. 
• Short term memory is memory that holds a few items briefly 
• Seven digits (Plus of minus two) 
• The information will be stored into long- term or forgotten. 
• Working memory (modern day stm)
• Another way of destroying the use of short term memory is called working memory. 
• Working memory has three parts
1.  Audio 
2.  Visual 
3.  Integration of audio and visual (controls where your attention lies)
• Long- term memory 
• The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. 
• Encoding 
• Automatic Processing
• Unconscious encoding of incidental information
• You encode space, time, and word meaning without effort.
• Things can become automatic with practice.
• Effortful Processing
• Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
• Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique.
• Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic. 

04/22/14 Intelligence

• Intelligence- The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt new situations.
• Is socially constructed, thus, can be culturally specific. 
• Factor analysis- a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test. 
• Charles Spearman used FA to discover his general intelligence. 
• Multiple intelligences 
• Howard Gardner disagreed with Spearman's general intelligence and instead came up with the concept of multiple intelligences. 
• He came up with the idea by studying savants. ( a condition where a person has limited mental abilitybut is exceptional in one area.) 
• Gardner's multiple intelligences 
• Visual/ spatial 
• Verbal/ linguistic 
• Logical/ mathematical 
• Bodily/kinesthetic 
• Musical/ rhythmic 
• Interpersonal
• Intrapersonal
• Natural 
• Sternberg's three aspects of intelligence 
• Gardner simplified
• Analytical 

04/22/14 Language and Thought

• Language- Our spoken written or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning.
• Phonemes- In a spoken language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
• Morphemes- In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning. (Prefix or Suffix)
• Grammar- A system of rules in a language that enables us to communicate and understand others.
• Semantics- The set of rules bu which we derive meaning in a language.
• Adding ed at the end of words means past tense.
• Syntax- The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences. 
• Language Development
1. Babbling Stage- Starting at 3-4 Months. Infant makes spontaneous sounds.
2. One Word Stage- 1-2 years old. Uses one word to communicate big meanings.
3. Two word Stage- at age 2, uses two words to communicate meanings- called telegraphic speech.
• Skinner
• Thought we can explain language development through social learning theory.
• Chomsky inborn universal Grammar
• We acquire language too quickly for it to be learned.
• "Learning Box" inside our heads that enable us to learn any human language.
• Whorf's Linguistic Relativity
• The idea that language determines the way we think.
• Thinking without language
• We can think in words, but more often we think in mental pictures.
• Kohler's Chimpanzees
• Kohler's exhibited that chimps can problem solve. 

04/22/14 Thinking

• Concepts- Mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
• Concepts are similar to Piaget's idea of schemas.
• Prototypes- Mental image or best example of a category.
• Algorithms- A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
• Heuristics- A rule of thumb strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. 
• Insight- A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.
• No real strategy involved.
• Confirmation Bias- A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.
• Fixation- The inability to see a problem from a new perspective.
• Mental Set- A tendency to approach a problem in a particular way especially if it has worked in the past.
• May or may not be a good thing.
• Functional Fixedness- The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions. 
• Types of Heuristics  (Often lead to errors)
1. Representativeness Heuristic
• Rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype. 
• Can cause us to ignore important information.
2. Availability Heuristic
• Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory.
• If it comes to wind easily we presume it is common.
• Overconfidence- The tendency to be more confident that correct.
• To overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs and judgments.
• Belief Bias- The tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning.
• Sometimes making invalid conclusions valid or vice versa.
• Belief Perseverance
• Clinging to your initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. 

04/22/14 Perception

• Monocular Cues
• Interposition- If something is blocking our view, we perceive it as closer.
• Relative Size- If we know that two objects are similar size, the one that looks smaller is smaller away.
• Relative Clarity- We assume hazy objects are farther away.
• Texture Gradient- The coarser it looks the closer it is,
• Relative Height- Things higher in our field of vision look farther away.
• Liner Perspective- Dimmer objects appear farther away because they reflect less light,
• Phi Phenomenon- An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession.
• Perceptual Consistency- Perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images changes.

04/10/14 Touch

• Touch- Receptors located in our skin.
• Gate Control Theory of Pain
• Where the spinal cord contains a neurological gate that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass onto the brain.

• Vestibular Sense
• Tells us where our body is orientated in space.
• Our sense of balance.
• Kinesthetic Sense
• Tells us where our body parts are.
• Receptors located in our muscles and joints.
• Perception
• The process if organizing and interpreting information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
• Gestalt Philosophy
• The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
• Figure- Ground Relationship
• The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)
• Grouping
• The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into groups that we understand.

• Depth Perception
• The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional.
• Allows us to judge distance.
• Binocular Cues
• Retinal Disparity- A binocular cue for seeing depth.
• The closer an object comes to you the greater the disparity is between the two images. 

04/10/14 Hearing and Taste

• Parallel Processing
• Young- Heimholtz Trichromatic Theory
• Three types of cones:
1. Red 
2. Blue 
3. Green
• These three types of cones can make millions of combinations of colors.
• Most colorblind people simply lack cone receptors for one or more of these primary colors. 

• Opponennt- Process Theory
• The sensory receptors come in pairs.
• Red/ Green
• Yellow/ Blue
• Black/ White
• If one color is stimulated, the other is inhibited.
• Hearing- Out Auditory Sense
• The height of the wave gives us the amplitude of the sounds.
• The frequency of the waves gives is the pitch of the sound.
• Transduction in the Ear
• Sound waves hit the eardrum then anvil then hammer then stirrup then oval window. 
• Everything vibrates, then the cochlea vibrates.
• Membrane
• In basilar membrane there are hair cells.
• When hair cells vibrate they turn vibrations into neural impulses which are called organ of Corti. 
• Sent then to thalamus up auditory nerve.
• Place Theory
• Different hairs vibrate in the cochlea when there are different pitches. 
• SO Some hairs vibrate when they hear higher pitches and other vibrate when they hear low pitches. 
• Frequency Theory
• All the hairs vibrate but at different speeds.
• Deafness
1. Conduction Deafness- Something goes wrong with the sound and the vibration on the way up to the cochlea. 
• You can replace the bones or get a hearing aid to help.
• Nerve (Sensorineural) Deafness
• The hair cells in the cochlea gets damaged
• Loud noises can cause this type of deafness.
• No way to replace the hairs.
• Cochlea implant if possible.

• Smell and Taste
• We study both together because of sensory interaction the principle that one sense may influence another.
• Taste
• We have bumps on our tongue called papillae. 
• Taste buds are located on the papillae (they are actually all over the mouth)
• Sweet, salty, bitter, and sour.
• Umami- Flavor, meaty, savory taste.

04/09/14 Unit V

• Sensation and Perception
• Sensation- Your window to the world.
• Perception- Interpreting what comes into your window.
• Sensations
• The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive stimulus from the environment.
• Bottom- Up V. Top- Down Processing
• Begins with recess receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information. 
• Information processing guided bu higher level mental process. 

• Absolute Threshold
• The minimum stimulation needed o detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
• Difference Threshold
• The minimum difference that a person can detect between stimuli.
• Also known as just noticeable difference.
• Weber's Law
• The idea that to perceive a difference between two stimuli; they must differ by a constant percentage, not a constant amount.
• Signal Detection Theory
• Predicts how we detect a stimulus amid other stimuli.
• Assumes that we do not have an absolute threshold.
• Sensory Adaptation
• Decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation.
• Selective Attention
• The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimuli.
• Cocktail- Party Phenomenon
• The cocktail party effect describes the ability to focus one's listening attention on a single talker among a mixture of conversations and background noises, ignoring other conversations.
• Form selective attention.

• Vision
• Our most dominating sense
• Visual Capture
• Phase 1: Gathering Light
• Short Wavelength: High frequency (bluish colors, high pitched sounds.)
• Long Wavelength: low frequency (reddish colors, low pitched sounds.)
• The height of a wavelength gives us it's intensity (brightness)
• The length of the wave gives us it's hue (color)
• The longer the wave the more red
• The shorter the wavelength
• Transduction
• Transmitting signals into neutral impulses 
• Information goes from the senses to the thalamus, then to the various areas in the brain.
• Transduction- Conversion of the form of energy to another.
• How is this important when studying sensation?
• Stimulus energies to review impulses
• Ex: Light energy to vision.

04/01/14 Developmental Psychology Ctd.

• Reflexes- inborn automatic responses.
• Rooting reflex- babies tendency when touched on the cheek to open the mouth and search for the nipple. I.e: sucking.
• Grasping- Trying to reach whats near them.
• Maturatuon
• Physical growth, regardless of the environment.
• Puberty
• The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
• Primary Sexual Characteristics 
• Body structures that make reproduction possible,
• Secondary and Sexual Characteristics.
• Non- reproductive sexual characteristics.
• Landmarks of Puberty
• Menarche for girls.
• First ejaculation for boys (Spermarche)
• Physical Milestones
• Menopause
• Death (5 Stages of death/ grief)
1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression 
5. Acceptance
• Social Development
• Up until a year, infants do nor mind strange people.
• Stranger Anxiety- Infant encounters a stranger and they exhibit anxiety.
• Separation Anxiety- Whenever a child is separated from their parents. Ex: Putting kids in a day care.
• Harry Harlow and his monkeys
• When you are separated from someone, you tend to be close to someone or something similar to them. 
• Critical Periods- The optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development
• Those who are deprived of touch have trouble forming  attachment when they are older. 
• Types of Attachment
1. Secure- When parents go to work and you are comfortable with who you are left with.
2. Avoidant
3. Anxious/ Ambivalent- Excited to see them come in, then give them the cold shoulder.
• Parenting Styles
• Authoritarian parents- Parents are in charge.
• Permissive Parents- Kids are in charge.
• Authoritative Parents- Parents and kids compromise.
• Erik- Erikson- Social Development
• A neo- freudian.
• Worked with Anna Freud.
• Thought our personality was influenced by our experiences with others.
• Trust vs. Mistrust- From 0-2 years of age.
• They trust or mistrust they develop can carry on with the child for the rest of their lives.
• Autonory v. Shame and Doubt
• Toddlers begin to control their bodies.
• Control temper tantrums
• Big word is No.
• Inflative v. Guilt- Age 3-6 years of age.
• Words turns from no to why
• Want to understand the world and ask questions.
• Industry v. Inferiority- Age 6-12 years of age.
• School begins
• We are for the first time evaluated bu a formal system and our peers.
• Can lead to us feeling bad about ourselves for the rest of their lives... inferiority complex.
• Identity V. Role Confusion- Early teens 13-15 years
• Who am I?
• In our teenage years we try out different roles.
• Intimacy v. Isolation
• Have to balance work and relationships
• What are my priorities?
• Generativity v. Stagnation- Middle adult (40's- 50's)
• Is everything going as planned? 
• Mid- Life crisis
• Integrity v. Despair- Older adults, senior citizens
• Look back on life
• Was my life meaningful or do I have regret?
• Cognitive Development
• It was thought that kids were just stupid versions of adults.
• Came along Jean Piaget.
• Kids learn differently than adults.
• Schemas
• Children view the world through schemas.
• Understanding the world around us.
• Schemas are ways we interpret the world around us.
• Basically what you picture in your head when you think of anything.
• Assimilation
• Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.
• Accommodation
• Changing an existing schema to adopt a new information
• Stages of Cognitive Development- Jean Piaget
1. Sensorimotor Stage
• Experience the world through our senses.
• Do not have object permanence
• 0-2 years of age.
2. Preoperational Stage
• 2-7 Years of age
• Have object permanence
• Begin to use language to represent objects and ideas.
• Egocentric: Cannot look at the world through anyone's eyes but their own,
• Conservation: refers to the idea that a quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance and is part of logical thinking.
3. Concrete Operational Stage
• Can demonstrate concept of conservation.
• Learn to think logically. 
4. Formal Operational Stage
• Abstract Reasoning
• Manipulate objects in our minds without seeing them.
• Hypothesis Testing
• Trial and Error
• Metacognition.
• Nor every adult gets to this stage.
• Types of Intelligence.
• Crystalized Intelligence
• Accumulated knowledge.
• Increases with age.
• Fluid Intelligence
• Ability to solve problems quickly and think abstractly. 
• Peaks in the 20's and then decreases over time.
• Moral Development- Three stages by Lawrence Kohlbergh
1. Pre- Conventional Morality
• Morality based on rewards and punishments.
• IF you are rewarded then it is ok.
• If you are punished, the act must be wrong.
2. Conventional Morality
• Look at morality based on how others see you.
• If your peers, or society, thinks it is wrong, then so do you.
3. Post- Conventional Morality
• Based on self- defined ethical principles.
• Your own personal set of ethics. 

03/31/14 Developmental Psychology

• Developmental Psychology- The study of you from womb to tomb. How we change physically, socially, cognitively.
• Nature v. Nurture
• Nature is the way you were born.
• Nurture is the way you were raised.
• Prenatal Development
• Conception begins with the drop of and the release of about 200 million sperm.
• The sperm seeks out the egg and attempts to penetrate the eggs surface.
• Once the sperm penetrate the egg- we have a fertilized egg called the zygote. 
• Zygotes- less than half of all zygotes survive first two weeks.
• About 10 days after conception, the zygote will attach itself to the  uterine wall.
• The outer part of the zygote becomes the placenta (which filters nutrients)
• After two weeks, the zygote develops into an embryo.
• Lasts about 6 weeks.
• Heart begins to beat and the organs begin to develop.
• Fetus
• By nine weeks we have a fetus.
• THe fetus by about the 6th month, the stomach and other organs have formed enough to survive outside of the mother.
• At this time the baby can hear (and recognize) sounds and respond to light.

• Teratogens
• Chemical agents that can harm the prenatal environment.
• Alcohol (FAS)
• Other STD's can harm the baby.
• HIV
• Herpes
• Healthy Newborns
• Turn head toward voices,
• See 8 to 12 inches from their faces.
• Gaze longer at human like objects right from birth.

03/17/14 Parts of the Brain

• Midbrain
• Coordinates simple movements with sensory information
• Contains the reticular formation: Arousal and ability to focus attention.
• Thalamus
• In forbrain
• Receives sensory information and sends them to appropriate areas of brain.
• Like a switchboard.
• Covers everything but smell.
• Limbic System
• Emotional control center of brain.
• Made up of hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus.
• Hypothalamus
• Pea sized in brain, but plays a not so pea sized role. 
• Body Temperate
• Hunger 
• Thirst
• Sexual Arousal (Libido)
• Hippocampus & Amygdala
• Hippocampus is involved in memory processing.
• Amygdala is vital for our basic emotions
• Cerebral Cortex
• Top layer of our brain.
• Contains wrinkles called fissures.
• The fissures increase surface area of out brain.
• Laid out it would be about the size of a large pizza.
• Hemispheres
• Divided into a left and right hemisphere.
• Contralateral controlled- Left controls right side of body and vice-versa. 
• Brain laterization
• Lefties are better at spatial and creative tasks. 
• Righties are better at logic. 
• Split- Brain Patients
• Corpus collosum attaches the two hemispheres of cerebral cortex. 
• When removed you have a split- brain patient.
• The cerebral cortex is made up of four lobes:
• Frontal Lobe
• Parietal Lobe
• Occipital Lobe
• Temporal Lobe
• Frontal Lobe
• Abstract thought and emotional control
• Contains Motor Cortex: Sends signals to our body controlling muscle movements.
• Contains Broca's Area: Responsible for controlling muscles- that produce speech.
• Damage to Broca's Area is called Broca's Aphasia: Unable to make movements to talk. 
• Motor and Sensory Cortexes
• Output: Motor Cortex- Left hemispheres controls opposite side of the body.
• Parietal Lobes
• Contain sensory cortex, receives incoming touch sensations from rest of the body.
• Most of the Parietal Lobes are made up of Association Areas.
• Association Areas
• Any area not associated with receiving sensory information or coordinating muscle movements.
• Occipital Lobes
• Deals with vision
• Contains Visual Cortex: Interprets messages from our eyes into images we can understand.
• Temporal Lobe
• Process sound sensed by our ears.
• Contains Wernike's Area: Interprets written and spoke speech.
• Interpreted in auditory cortex.
• Not lateralized
• Wernike's Aphasia- Unable to understand language: the syntax and grammar jumbled.

• The Endocrine System
• A system of glands that secrete hormones.
• Similar to nervous system, except hormones were a lot slower than neurotransmitters.
• Major Endocrine Glands
• Thyroid Glands- Affect metabolism, among other things.
• Pituitary Glands- Secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands.
• Adrenal Glands- Inner part, called the medulla, helps trigger the "fight or flight" response.
• Pancreas- Regulates the level of sugar in the blood.
• Ovary- Secretes female sex hormones.
• Testis- Secretes male sex hormones.